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[ A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | Statistical Terms ]
A
Adherent: 1) A person who identifies with some religious tradition. It is a broader term than “member” because the latter refers to an official status that varies according to congregation or denomination. 2) Note that in our online Maps & Reports, “adherent” has a more specific meaning: “All members, including full members, their children and the estimated number of other participants who are not considered members; for example, the ‘baptized,’ ‘those not confirmed,’ ‘those not eligible for communion,’ ‘those regularly attending services,’ and the like,” according to the Religious Congregations and Membership Study, 2000.
Adventist Family: Churches originating from founder William Miller in the late 19th century, who taught that Christ would soon return to earth and that Saturday rather than Sunday should be observed as the Sabbath. The Adventist family includes the Seventh Day Adventist Church as well as offshoots such as the Advent Christian Church.
Agnosticism: A philosophical position neither affirming nor denying belief in a deity.
Anglican Family: Churches originating in England that broke with Roman Catholicism during the 16th century Reformation, while retaining a hierarchical structure. Churches in the Anglican family include the Church of England and the Episcopal Church in the United States.
Apostasy: Departing or falling away from a religious faith.
Archbishop: The Bishop of an Archdiocese.
Archdiocese: A large Diocese overseen by the Archbishop.
Atheism: A belief that God does not exist.
B
Baha’i: A religion started in 19th century Persia (now Iran) by Mirza Husain Ali. The Baha’i faith is now worldwide and teaches the unity of God, the truth of his prophets, and continuation of revelation in every age. It has no priesthood, believing in spirituality equality between men and women, according to the Dictionary of Non-Christian Religions.
Baptism: The rite of applying water to a person, usually marking his or her entrance into the Christian church. Churches and denominations are divided on whether baptism literally or symbolically washes away sin.
Baptist: Evangelical Protestants, Baptist churches teach that only believers should be voluntarily baptized by immersion.
Bar Mitzvah: This Jewish ceremony, usually performed when a boy is 13, marks his passage into adulthood.
Bible: The sacred text for Christians, comprising the Old and New Testaments.
Bishop: A senior member of the clergy who is in charge of a diocese or association of congregations or parishes.
Book of Mormon: The sacred text, along with the Bible, of Latter Day Saints (Mormons), which is said to be dictated to church founder Joseph Smith by an angel.
Born-Again: A term used by Jesus in the New Testament that is now employed to describe the conversion experience of evangelical and fundamentalist Christians.
Buddhism: A world religion founded by Gautama, the Buddha in the fifth or fourth century (B.C.) in India. Teaching reincarnation and freedom from worldly attachments, Buddhism has three major branches: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.
C
Canon Law: Church law or decrees.
Cardinal: A papal-appointed position in the Roman Catholic Church responsible for electing new popes.
Catechism: A manual of instruction in the basics of the Christian faith. The various denominations have issued catechisms outlining basic teachings and practices of their faiths.
Cathedral: A building traditionally designated as the principal church of a diocese or archdiocese in the Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox traditions.
Charismatic Movement: Stresses spiritual gifts described in the New Testament, such as speaking in tongues and healing. Charismatics are found in most Mainline and Catholic Church bodies, as well as functioning independently of denominations.
Christian Science Family: Churches following the teachings of founder Mary Bake Eddy, who believed that personal healing was the central message of Christianity. The largest group in the Christian Science family is the Church of Christ Scientist.
Clergy: Ordained leaders who carry out religious duties.
Confession: A sacrament in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches in which the penitent confesses his or her sins to a priest and is absolved of them.
Communal Family: Churches where members often live together or share living activities, such as common meals, as an expression of their faith. The Hutterian Brethren is an example of a communal church.
Communion: Christians commemorate Christ’s last supper by partaking of the elements of bread and wine (or grape juice). The various churches and denominations are divided on whether these elements actually become Christ’s body and blood or symbolize them.
Confirmation: This ceremony marks the reception of young Christians (usually in their early teen years) into full participation in the life of the church. Confirmation is most often celebrated in the Roman Catholic, Episcopal, Lutheran, Methodist and Presbyterian denominations.
Congregation: Any local gathering of believers for worship. This can be thought of as a more inclusive term for “church,” since many religious traditions use different names for their place of worship. Usually this refers to a building or physical structure, but it could also refer to a more fluid group of people without a specific building (e.g. a ‘congregation’ that meets in member’s homes).
Congregationalism: A system of church governance in which the members hold most of the power, such as electing the clergy and making other major decisions. 2) Congregationalism can also refer to the church tradition stemming from the English Puritans of the 17th century and now found in the United States in the United Church of Christ and smaller Congregationalist bodies.
Cult: 1) A new and unconventional religious movement that is often founded on the teachings of a new prophet and/or new sacred text. 2) The ARDA and other scholars tend to use the term “new religious movements” rather than cults because the latter term carries negative political and social connotations and prejudices associated with those belonging to such groups. 3) In popular use, people often refer to sects as cults.
D
Deacon: A minister ranking below a priest in the Anglican, Catholic, and Orthodox churches. In most Protestant churches, deacons are not ordained and are seen as people who assist the clergy.
Denomination: A larger religious organization or structure to which a congregation may be a member. Usually, congregations within a denomination are united by some historical and\or theological tradition. Congregations not belonging to a denomination are usually called “independent” or “non-denominational.”
Diocese: The wider regional structure connecting parishes and other local organizations that is overseen by a bishop.
E
Eastern Liturgical (Orthodox) Family: One of the three great divisions of Christianity; the others are the Protestant churches and the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic and Orthodox churches were originally united, but they parted in the eleventh century, when they differed over several points of doctrine, including the supreme authority of the pope, which Orthodox Christians reject.
Ecumenism: A movement supporting closer relations and unity between Christians. Often this means denominational dialogues and even mergers.
Elder: In various churches, especially the Presbyterian and Reformed tradition, the elders are laypeople who share authority and leadership with the clergy.
Encyclical: A statement or document on an important issue written by the pope or bishops to fellow Catholics.
End-Times: The belief that the world is coming to an end and God’s kingdom will be established.
European Free Church Family: Churches that left established and state churches in Europe over the belief that congregational activity and membership should be voluntary and free of state control. Examples of these churches include the Society of Friends (Quakers) and the Evangelical Covenant Church, which is the result of a schism from the Church of Sweden in the 19th century.
Evangelical Protestantism: A movement in Protestantism emphasizing one’s personal relationship with Christ, the inspiration of the Bible, and the importance of sharing one’s faith with non-believers. Evangelical Protestantism is usually seen as more theologically and socially conservative than Mainline Protestantism, although there is obviously variation between denominations, congregations, and individuals within the “Evangelical” category.
Evangelism: The practice of some Christians of sharing the gospel of Christ with non-believers.
F
Fundamentalism: 1) A movement of Protestants embracing similar beliefs as evangelicals, although usually in a more conservative direction, stressing separation from the world and from more liberal Christian bodies. The term derives from a series of booklets entitled “The Fundamentals,” which were published in the early 20th century on what were viewed to be the basic doctrines of Christianity. 2) The term is also used to describe similarly conservative movements in other religions, particularly Islam.
G
Government Favoritism: When a government provides subsidies, privileges, support, or favorable sanctions for a select religion or a small group of religions. For more information, see the National Profiles section on The ARDA site.
Government Regulation: The restrictions placed on the practice, profession, or selection of religion by the official laws, policies, or administrative actions of the state. For more information, see the National Profiles section on The ARDA site.
H
Hadith: A collection of traditions of Muhammad and his followers that supplements the Koran.
Hinduism: The name given for the majority religion of India. There is no central authority in Hinduism, although most Hindu groups and traditions believe in reincarnation and venerate gods and goddesses who are viewed as manifestations of God.
Holiness Family: Churches that emerged out of the Methodist churches in the United States as they sought to restore John Wesley’s teachings of personal holiness and total sanctification (perfection). Holiness bodies include the Church of the Nazarene and the various Church of God denominations.
Homily: Similar to a sermon, though usually briefer and most often given in Catholic churches.
I
Imam: The prayer leader of a mosque in Islam.
Independent Fundamentalist Family: Churches that left mainline and evangelical denominations, believing they were too liberal in theology. The Independent Fundamental Churches in America is the largest of these separatist bodies.
Interfaith: A movement attempting to foster closer relations between different religions.
Islam: The religion founded by Mohammad, who is believed by followers to be the final prophet. Muslims follow the sacred text of the Koran and stress the oneness of God
J
Jainism: An ancient Indian religion that teaches no supreme deity, although some Hindu gods are recognized. The religion stresses non-violence and takes its authority from spiritual teachers known as Jinas, according to the Dictionary of Non-Christian Religions (1971: Westminster Press).
Judaism: A monotheistic religion based on the Torah, Talmud and other texts that are part of the Old Testament. There are several Jewish denominations, including Orthodox and Reform Judaism.
K
Kingdom Hall: A meeting place for Jehovah’s Witnesses.
Koran: The sacred text of Muslims.
L
Laity: Non-ordained members of Christian churches.
Last Rites: The Catholic sacrament preparing members for death, which usually involves applying oil to the dying person and hearing his or her last confession.
Latter-day Saint Family (Mormon): Founded by Joseph Smith in 19th century America as a restoration of New Testament Christianity, the Latter Day Saints’ main authority is the Book of Mormon. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon), and the Community of Christ (formerly the Reorganized Church of Latter Day Saints) are the largest denominations in this family.
Liberal Religious Family: Consists of churches and associations stressing the primacy of reason and experience over the authority of doctrine and sacred texts. The Unitarian-Universalist Association and the American Ethical Union are two examples of such groups.
Liturgy: A set order of public worship, often comprised of chants, prayers, and readings.. Such churches as Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican have more ornate liturgies than other churches that stress preaching and the singing of hymns.
Lutheran Family: Churches following the teachings of reformer Martin Luther, particularly his teaching on justification by faith.
M
Mainline Protestantism: A branch of Protestantism encompassing what are considered theologically liberal and moderate denominations, such as the Presbyterian Church (US), the United Methodist Church, The Reformed Church in America, the Episcopal Church, the United Church of Christ, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. While Mainline Protestantism is usually seen as more theologically and socially liberal than Evangelical Protestantism, there is obviously variation between denominations, congregations, and individuals within the “Mainline” category.
Megachurch: A large congregation with 2,000 or more attending services, according to John N. Vaughan in Mega churches & America’s Cities (1993, Baker).
Member: 1) A member is a person belonging to a congregation and\or denomination. Rules concerning membership vary by religious tradition. For example, there may be confessions, behaviors, rituals, or other requirements for becoming a full member. 2) Sometimes people use the word “member” to mean that they simply attend a congregation, whether or not they are full members of the congregation or denomination. In this sense, “member” is similar to “adherent.” 3) Note that in our online Maps & Reports “members” are defined as “All individuals in a religious group with full membership status”, according to the Religious Congregations and Membership Study, 2000.
Merger: When two or more denominations, organizations or congregations join together to make one structure. For instance, the creation of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America in 1988 was the result of a merger of three smaller Lutheran denominations. See our “Denominations” section to explore denominational histories, including mergers.
Methodist-Pietist Family: Consists of churches that stress the importance of internal faith, spirituality, and Christian living over adherence to formal creeds and doctrine. The largest among these churches is the United Methodist Church, which follows the teachings of John Wesley, who in the 18th century broke away from the Church of England because of his emphasis on personal holiness.
Mosque: The Muslim building for public worship.
Mysticism: A form of spirituality stressing union with God and religious experience rather than doctrine.
N
New Age: A loosely-based movement that emerged in the late 1960s stressing experiential spirituality, the interconnectedness of life and the immanence (or nearness) of the sacred to the world, drawing on a blend of occult, Eastern and human potential teachings.
New Religious Movements: Groups and movements that because of belief and practice exist outside of Christianity, Judaism, and other major religious traditions. Examples of new religious movements would be the Unification Church and various neo-pagan groups, although even such an established religion as Christianity started out as a new religious movement within Judaism. .
O
P
Pastor: Ordained leader of a congregation. In Catholicism, the term can also mean the head priest of a parish.
Parish: Another name for a congregation in the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches.
Patriarch: The head bishop of an Eastern Orthodox Church.
Patriarchate: A seat of authority in the Eastern Orthodox churches.
Pentecostal Family: A movement of churches that emerged in early 20th century America, stressing enthusiastic worship and the restoration of such practices evident in New Testament Christianity, such as speaking in tongues and healing.
Pluralism: The existence or toleration of diverse religious groups in a society. For example, America is a religiously pluralistic country because it has many different denominations and religions.
Pope: The appointed leader of the Roman Catholic Church.
Presbyterian-Reformed Family: The Protestant tradition based on the teachings of reformer John Calvin. The Reformed tradition consists both of Presbyterian churches as well as denominations that developed in continental Europe, such as the Dutch and the German Reformed.
Presbytery: An administrative body in a Presbyterian church.
Priest: An ordained person who performs religious duties in the Anglican, Catholic, and Orthodox churches, as well as in world religions such as Hinduism.
Proselytism: The practice of seeking to convert people from other religions or no religion to another faith.
Protestantism: A branch of Christianity dating back to the Reformation of the 15th century, when Reformers, such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, first sought to reform the Catholic Church but increasingly left to start their own churches
Q
R
Rabbi: The ordained leader of a synagogue in Judaism.
Rapture: The belief that Christians will be brought up to heaven and escape a time of tribulation and testing before the return of Christ.
Religiosity: The degree to which a person is religious or spiritual. Sociologists usually consider a number of factors, such as church attendance, belief in God, prayer frequency, and professed importance of religion to assess a person’s level of religiosity.
Religious Favoritism: Subsidies, privileges, support, or favorable sanctions provided by the state to a select religion or a small group of religions.
Religious Freedom: The absence of government discrimination, restrictions, regulations and societal pressures on religious individuals or groups.
Religious Order: An official society within a church whose members, such as nuns or monks, live under the same rule.
Religious Regulation: The legal and social restrictions that inhibit the practice, profession, or selection of religion.
Renewal Group: A group or movement within or on the periphery of a denomination attempting to reform or change its teachings and practices in a desired direction. Usually this means change back to ‘traditional’ beliefs and\or practices.
Restorationist Family: Churches that broke away from established American denominations during the 19th century in their concern to restore what they understood as true New Testament Christianity, stressing strict adherence to the Bible rather than to creeds. Restorationist churches include the Churches of Christ and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).
S
Sacraments: Religious ceremonies and objects said to convey the grace of God to those partaking of them.
Schism: 1) A division or split within a religious group. Although a congregation can undergo a “schism,” the term usually refers to a split within a denomination. For example, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America split off from the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in 1874. See our “Denominations” section to explore denominational histories, including schisms.
Sect: 1) A religious group that separates from a larger religious movement or tradition. 2) Sociologists also refer to sects as religious groups making high demands on their members and holding a high level of tension with the rest of society.
Secular: Someone or something not identified as religious or spiritual.
Secularization: 1) The process of a group or individual discarding religious beliefs and practices. 2) Sociologists also refer to a society being secularized when religion loses its public presence. 3) A theory about the eventual decline of religion due to modernity (i.e. science, economic development, pluralism, etc.), which is debated among social scientists.
Seminary: An institution that educates clergy, theologians and other professionals for religious service.
Sermon: A message on a religious topic preached by clergy and other leaders of a congregation during worship.
Sharia: The canon law of Islam that seeks to guide human activity, often enacted as the official law for a Muslim nation or society.
Sikhism: Emerged in central India and the Punjab region of India in the 16th century and was founded by Guru Nanak. The Sikhs stressed the oneness of God and follow the teachings of 10 gurus, the fifth of whom, Arjan, compiled the religion’s primary sacred text, the Guru Granth.
Social Regulation: The restrictions placed on the practice, profession, or selection of religion by other religious groups, associations, or the culture at large. For more information, see the National Profiles section on The ARDA site.
Speaking In Tongues: The practice of speaking in unknown or foreign languages by charismatic and Pentecostal Christians. It is usually seen as a gift of the Holy Spirit first described in the New Testament book of Acts.
Spiritualist Family: Churches and other religious associations teaching that believers can communicate with spirits and the deceased through such practices as séances and other paranormal activities. Churches in the Spiritualist tradition include the Swedenborgian Church and the International General Assembly of Spiritualists.
Stake: A regional association of Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon) congregations or wards.
State Church: The officially recognized denomination by a government, such as the Church of England.
Sunday School: An educational ministry for children and adults usually held before or after worship services in churches.
Synagogue: The Jewish building for public worship.
Synod: An official meeting of the minister and other members of the Christian church. This term can also refer to an association of churches, such as the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod
T
Talmud: A text of commentary and traditions supplementing the Torah and other Old Testament writings.
Temple: Jewish and Hindu buildings for public worship (see also synagogue for Jews). Mormons also enter a temple to perform important religious ceremonies.
Torah: The first five books in the Old Testament which Jewish believers consider their most sacred text.
U
Unchurched: Those who do not attend or have stopped attending religious services.
V
Vatican II: A church-wide council held for Catholics from 1962-1965 to renew the church and update Catholic teachings, especially involving the liturgy, religious freedom, and ecumenism.
Veda: The most ancient and sacred texts of Hinduism.
W
Ward: A congregation in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon).
Western Liturgical Family: Churches represented by or originating from the Roman Catholic Church. Such offshoots include the Old Catholic Church and the Polish National Catholic Church, which differ from the Roman Catholic Church in their rejection of the authority of the pope.
X
Y
Z
Zoroastrianism: The religion founded by Zoroaster as a reform of ancient Persian polytheism into a monotheistic belief system.
Statistical Terms
Case: A single unit being studied, such as a person or organization. If 100 people in a congregation were surveyed, then the study contains 100 cases.
Census: An official enumeration of the population, with details as to age, sex and occupation. Usually differs from a survey in that it attempts to count all individuals instead of just a sample.
Correlation: Correlation means “to go together, to vary in unison.” For example, people who attend church frequently also tend to pray frequently. Correlations can be either positive or negative. A positive correlation means that the two variables go “up” or “down” at the same time. Prayer goes up with attendance and vice versa. A negative correlation means one variable goes “down” as the other goes “up.” Correlation does not mean that one variable actually causes another. Prayer may or may not cause attendance to increase, just like attendance may or may not cause frequency of prayer. Saying something is correlated simply states that the two variables vary together.
Index: An index is a way to combine similar measures into a single measure. Consider how you would measure how religious a person is. You could ask the person a single question, such as “how religious are you?” But a more useful strategy might be to ask a series of questions (e.g. frequency of prayer, attendance at religious services, etc.) and combine them into an overall “religiosity score.”
Indicator: An empirical manifestation of a concept; for example, the indicator “number of those attending church services” often represents the concept “attendance.” See also: “Measure\Measurement.”
Measure\Measurement: A measure is a way to scientifically represent some part of the world. This is easier in the natural sciences. If you want to know the weight of an object, you can measure this fairly clearly and accurately. But what if you wanted to measure how religious a person is? You could ask in a survey how religious he or she is, how frequently they attend religious services, how often they pray, or some other “measure” of religiosity.
Missing: Data that are absent in a survey. Missing data occurs for a number of reasons. A case may have refused to answer a question, or did not have an opinion on a question. If person is filling out a survey, he or she may have unintentionally skipped a question. Sometimes a question is only meant for a particular sub-group, such as males. In these cases, females would be intentionally missing from that particular question.
N: The number of cases in a survey. The “N” can also represent the number of people who responded to a particular survey question or the number of people with a particular characteristic. For instance, a study may have surveyed 100 people, but for some questions only 95 or 87 gave responses (see “Missing”). Or, of the 100 people only 43 were male, so the “N” for males is 43.
Percentage: A proportion in relation to a whole sample or population usually represented by the number 100. It is computed by taking the number of cases with a particular characteristic and dividing by the total number of cases. For instance, if you wanted to know the number of Catholics in a survey, you can take the number of Catholics and divide by the total number of cases in the survey.
Per Capita: A rate that refers to the amount of something per individual unit. It is similar to a percentage, by which you take the overall amount and divide by the number of cases. For instance, if you take the total amount of money received by a congregation and divided by the number of members, you would have “giving per capita,” or the average amount of money given per person.
Population: All individual units (i.e. people, organizations, nations, and so on) within a defined group. Before doing a survey or census, researchers must ask exactly what population they are interested in studying. For instance, the “population” of a nation could be all of the individuals in the nation. The “population” of a religious group could be all of the members or congregations.
Rate: Unlike absolute or raw numbers, rates attempt to make comparisons across units (e.g. states) more meaningful. Consider the absolute number of Evangelical adherents in California and Alabama. California has many more Evangelicals than Alabama, but it also has many more people. One way to compare the “Evangelical” nature of these two states would be to create a rate. How many people out of 1,000 are Evangelical in California and Alabama?
Sample\Sampling: Most social research relies on sampling (specifically, random sampling). It is a way to examine only a small percent of a population and obtain results that are extremely similar to what you would find if you did a census of the population. Let’s say you wanted to know the opinions of your congregation on an issue, but your congregation is particularly large. It would take a great deal of time to ask every single person your question. A much faster way would be to sample 10% of the individuals. If you randomly select those individuals, then your results will be virtually the same as if you had asked everyone and any differences will have a known range of error. This is why you often see statistics presented with a “margin of error.”
Statistic: A number derived from a sample that represents some characteristic of a defined population. For instance, “56% of a congregation’s membership is female” represents a statistic if the number came from a random sample of the congregation. If every unit (i.e. person) was counted in a census, then the number is usually called a parameter instead of a statistic.
Survey: A method of obtaining information directly from an individual or organization. A survey typically consists of a series of questions and is usually only given to a sample of a particular population. The ARDA’s Data Archive primarily consists of surveys, but also contains census and other forms of data.
Variable: Almost everything in the social world is a variable. People vary in their sex, income, religious affiliation, political opinions, and so on. Surveys attempt to measure this variation by asking questions and providing a range of options for answers. Most social research can be viewed as trying to understand the relationship between different variables. For instance, how does variation in income relate to variation in prayer? Do those with higher incomes pray more or less than lower income individuals?
